Critical summaries (language, culture& society) (langustics Essay

Critical summaries (language, culture& society) (langustics department) - Essay Example Starting from 60s, researchers indicated inequalities among students who attend Universities. At that time 80% were white students and only 10% were black students (Francis, Kelly and Bell, 1994). The main focus of this article is the role linguistic speech codes play in students’ performance. Bernstein differentiates between ‘restricted speech code’ of low class of students and ‘elaborated code’ which refers to students from higher class. Thus, a set of words used by the latter group of students is more flexible and meets the requirements of academic education. A further discussion refers to Deconstruction theory, which relates texts of the world as being reflected in our consciousness. The authors of the article make an attempt to argue to the existent scientific canon of approaches to relation of students’ performance and language codes. They claim about a necessity to develop heterogeneous students’ body set in the limits of â€Å"p eople's history and experience situated in geography of other identities, peoples, cultures, and then to study how, despite their differences, they have overlapped one another, and are mixed together† (Francis, Kelly and Bell, 1994). This article is a modern perspective on pedagogical challenge on a new role language plays in the education process. It is not an indicator of socio-cultural differences, but a facilitator to overcome these differences and to integrate them. Language and development   In the article â€Å"Model Standards for English Language Development: National trends and a Local Response† by Terrence G. Wiley and Elizabeth Hartung-Cole, current tendencies in English learning for non-native speakers of English are discussed. On the one hand, English standards developed on the international level take into account the issue of language diversity. On the other hand, this is not enough and it is relevant to develop standards especially for non-native speak ers of English. The issue of what language standard really means has been discussed by researchers for a long period of time. Nevertheless, a crucial importance of language standard can’t be questioned. The authors introduce a concept of ‘over-prespecification’ between the curriculum and learning process (Wiley and Hartung-Cole, 2002). This concept implies a necessity to take into account external knowledge and abilities of students. Current development of English standard should be conducted in a socio-cultural context. Therefore, the authors agree with the fact that administrative training of teachers and gaining proper background knowledge about non-native speakers of English are crucial for further development of English standards on national and on local levels. Not individual students and the level of their performance should be concernd, but heterogeneous body of students. These tendencies are caused by the world’s tendencies for globalization and o verall integration. Consequently, it is relevant to develop universal model standard efficient for native and non-native speakers of English. Multilingualism and Bilingualism   The article â€Å"Bilingualism, Cultural Transmutation, and Fields of Coexistence: California's Spanish Language Legacy† by Sara Garcia is of high relevance nowadays. Different nations tend to integration and successful coexistence. On the example of English Only programs in California a national attitude to bilinguals in America is discussed. A language behavior of Spanish/English bilinguals is developed under the

Effect of Illiteracy Essay Example for Free

Effect of Illiteracy Essay Recent studies show that there is an increasing rate of illiteracy all over the world. A study conducted by WSI(World Statistics Institute) shows that over 27% of people are illiterate globaly. Another study by the same institute shows that the speed at which illiteracy rate ascends is 32%. These rates are quite important, as illiteracy has terrible effects on society. The most important effect of illiteracy on society is that, it works as an inhibitor. That is to say, the more illiterate people there are in a country, the harder it will be for the country to develop. This fact could be clarified with an example: America(whose illiteracy rate is below 5%) and Canada(Illiteracy rate: around 8%) are developed countries, whereas countries, like Turkey and Iran(Illiteracy rates: 61% and 43% in order) are undeveloped countries. Illiteracy has got a kind of genetic effect. The children of illiterate people are more likely to be illiterate that those who arent. Even if the parents dont want their children to be illiterate, their children, observing the parents, see that they somehow manage to live and adopt the idea that illiteracy isnt actually a bad thing. And since people develop most of their character during childhood, they choose to go with illiteracy. Another major effect of illiteracy is that, illiterate people believe in the said things easily. They do not investigate what was said or told to them. When looked at the pages of history, it can be seen that, while most uneducated people are slaves, guardians and assistants; people who are educated are mostly kings, quenns and sultans. They are not slaves because they wanted, but because people superior to them -in terms of education- made them so. All these significant results of illiteracy affect society in a bad way.

The Yellow Wallpaper -- essays research papers

Chapters 12-14 Identifying Facts 1.Huck and Jim avoided being seen while floating down the river by camouflaging the raft with thickets and things of that sort. They would just cover themselves up with things of nature which served as a shelter and a hiding place. 2. Huck discovers three men on the wrecked steamboat Jake Packard, Jim Turner, and Bill. 3. Huck and Jim cannot escape the steamboat because there were drunk men in their way. 4.The steamboat sinks 5.Huck gets his information about dukes and kings from books. Chapters 15-16 Identifying Facts 1. Huck and Jim’s plan to reach safe territory was to sell the raft and get on a steamboat and go to the free states. 2. When Huck rejoins Jim after they are lost in the fog Jim has been drinking and talking â€Å"wild.† 3. Jims response to Huck’s trick is frustration. He says â€Å" how could you make a fool of ole Jim with a lie?† 4. Huck convinces the men not to search the raft by saying that his pap is on it and he has smallpox. 5.Huck and Jim know they have passed Cairo because there was no â€Å"high ground† about Cairo. Chapters 17-18 Identifying Facts 1,After Huck forgets his name he tricks Buck into revealing it by having him spell it. 2. Emmeline Grangerford was most interested in the theme of death. 3.Huck rediscovers Jim by following a slave into the woods where Jim has been hiding. 4.Jim and Huck’s raft had been â€Å"smashed all to flinders.† 5.Huck feels responsible for Sophia’s elopement because he had fetched the book with a...

New Coke Case Study

1.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   When Ted Levitt posed the question, â€Å"What business is it in?† he was blurring the distinction between â€Å"industry† and â€Å"market.†Ã‚   Rather than limiting corporate scope, this question challenges companies to look beyond their immediate material product or service and examine the spectrum of ways they can (and should) target the greater public appeal. Coca-Cola is in the beverage industry and in the market of appealing to nostalgia and personal emotional connections to its international patronage.   Coca-Cola’s â€Å"business† is to offer a sweet, fun, memory-inspiring portable beverage that inspires nostalgia for a carefree time gone by.   Coca-Cola is a sense-memory product that relies on a perception of indulgence and comfort. 2.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   From its beginnings as â€Å"†Pemberton's French Wine Coca,† in 1886, Coca-Cola’s brand building strategy relied heavily on appealing to the national emotion and current conviction of any given time period.   â€Å"†Pemberton's French Wine Coca† was advertised as a â€Å"nerve tonic,† good for alleviating morphine addiction.   When the nation turned to temperance, Pemberton reinvented the brand appeal by advocating Coca-Cola as a non-alcoholic enjoyable substitute.   Likewise, the ingredient cocaine was removed in response to the public sentiment.   In 1904, the name Coca-Cola appeared, in essentially the same script format as is used today.   By generally maintaining visual continuity, Coke achieves a connotation of timelessness. Coke’s meanings all stem from an emphasis on wholesomeness and small town Americana images.   This was best captured during the Great Depression, when Coca-Cola used the slogan â€Å"The Pause that Refreshes† paired with a seemingly carefree Everyman heading to work.   This contradiction in marketing and real life worked for Coke, which did not suffer a devastating economic impact as a result of the depressed country. Coke began its Santa Claus campaign in the 1920s, but it was artist Haddon Sundblom’s now classic 1931 image of a jolly old man in a bright red suit that solidified the connection between Coke and â€Å"The Most Wonderful Time of the Year.†Ã‚   The iconic figure of the generous and loving figure of comfort matched with Coke’s image as a drink for every good American citizen.   Latching onto the cultural and emotional connection of Christians to St. Nick proved critical to Coke’s attempts to forever connect with the rosy yester-year. This strategy is not replicable in today’s marketing environment.   Socially, the target audience(s) is too polarized for a specific iconic image, particularly an over-commercialized figure associated with a specific religion.   Post Cold-War America is less responsive to over-romanticized images, and given the divisive nature of religious images in the secular marketplace, the response Coke garnered in 1931 would not be the same for a new, less acculturated product. 3. Coke’s advertising stresses brand engagement, emphasizing consumer loyalty and a positive personal image that is common to â€Å"Coke drinkers.†Ã‚   The advertising capitalizes on the cultural desires for conformity, connection to a greater social idea, and purchase with a common and â€Å"more desirable† past; these impulses are satisfied by images and well-crafted slogans or jingles. Coke’s visual art/image campaign directly taps into a level of communication that transcends language barriers.   Their choices reflect strategic attempts to align with patriotic, socially commendable images, including well-known and powerful entertainment luminaries who may have commanded additional financial support. When Hollywood influences fashion, language, behavioral or religious trends, it is widely considered the natural order of the beautiful, wealthy elite modeling correct behavior for the lower, coarser classes.   In contrast, marketers are perceived to be embodying the unethical pursuit of money when they more overtly sell the same trends.   In our consumer-driven culture, however, marketers are fulfilling the edicts of capitalism more legitimately than celebrities. 4.   In contrast to Coke, Pepsi cast itself as the youthful drink: fresh, light, and savvier than antiquated Coke.   Slogans targeted a specific young adult market, and advertising featured pop stars and current sports celebrities.   It was a threat to Coke, though it became much more of a threat due to Coke’s reaction. Coke had built its reputation on core stability, and in response to a legitimate competitor, Coke radically violated the very principles that kept it at the top of the beverage market.   Coke could have reemphasized its history, it’s longevity, it’s fidelity to the taste generations of consumers appreciated and expected; consumers had proven over the years that while other products may gain popularity, Coke would remain a solid choice in the market. 5.   Both Keough and Goizueta assumed that change meant positive progress, and that if Pepsi was succeeding at any level, it was because consumers craved something radical.   The advent of calorie counting led to the boom of diet drinks, and Goizueta had already enacted a shift in corporate philosophy by green-lighting Diet Coke.   In the framework of the Coca-Cola advertising history, these assumptions were directly violating all of the brand building work.   New Coke philosophically undermined what the meaning makers intended. 6.    This case reveals that powerful brand meaning is a double-edged sword:   if a product hinges its campaign on comforting emotional continuance, there will be a logical backlash against change, even in the name of positive progress.   This case demonstrates the role of brand loyalty in the negative light; that is, the consumers’ â€Å"passion† (as Keough suggests) can work swiftly against a favored product due to years of brand meaning cultivation. 7.New Coke failed because it directly conflicted with the brand meaning that executives had worked for decades to confirm in the public consciousness. 8.   Keough is correct, but the statement is misleading to some extent.   Research demonstrated that people didn’t reject the taste of New Coke:   people resented a perceived betrayal by what they were encouraged to believe was the most moral and patriotic of beverage-producing companies.   Coca-Cola’s original, consistent and effective marketing succeeded only too well, effectively destroying the New Coke campaign. Emotional attachments may not be quantifiable within traditional statistical methodology, but Coke had significant data to support the effectiveness of their nostalgia connection to inform them of the customer’s product loyalty.   The customers were simply behaving in the way Coke had spent nearly a century urging them to. Bibliography Fournier, Susan. 1999. Introducing New Coke. Harvard Business Review.

Characteristics of a Leader

‘Leaders should lead by example’ so the saying goes. There are certain characteristic found in some people. It is just that, they put them in a position where people looked up to as a leader. People often say ‘ He or she is a born leader’. Whether in fact a person is born a leader or develop skills and abilities to become a good leader is open for debate. There are some clear characteristics that are found in good leaders. These qualities can be developed and naturally is the part of their personality. Firstly, a good leader must have a positive attitude.This quality is a required not just for a leader but everybody. However, this is specially necessary for a leader. A leader needs to be positive and motivate his team, in times that are hard and times that are brutal. When times are tough and his team is absolutely down, when times are really frustrating, a leader is the who carries his team and his organization forward and that is what a leader needs to do look at the bright side of each and everything. Besides a good leader must be a good listener. This is because a good leader needs to listen to her followers.She needs to get feedback on a regular basis, open her eyes and ears and keep listening. Now a word of caution. Listening does not mean to blindly follow and accept everything that is said and shown. What goes hand in hand is listening. This also helps her followers to express theirs feeling or even to speak their rights. The quality which a leader should possess is intelligence and alertness. A leader has to use his brain every time and also has to remain  Ã‚   alert with   eyes and ears open otherwise he could easily be carried by any fraud or enemy.Many a times we see such situations around us, where a person in trouble or problem doesn’t hesitate in blaming and embarrassing even his closest friend to save himself, and also does not bother about his friends at all because the person has to get rid of his problems anyhow. So, he just thinks about himself and his life,   the life of other does not matter to him much. Some people have a misconception that only those people who are physically strong can become good leaders, but this is not the fact.A leader may not be physically strong but he needs to be mentally strong and firm in decisions. For example, Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of the Nation was the greatest leader but he was active and had a firm desire to serve the Nation. He had the power of organizing and uniting people and attracting people towards him by his speeches. This is the best quality of a leader which he had in him. We can also say that, a person who can satisfy the basic psychological needs of his followers can also be an effective leader. A leader must have average character .There are no perfect people, but for a leader to be considered good, they must have a character that is unquestioned within the organization. Leadership always draws criticism from someone, so a leade r may not be able to get everyone to believe in him or her, but the people who know the leader best should trust the leader’s character. In a nutshell, a good leader must be faithful to his group members and activities. This in turn, will result in an atmosphere of assurance among the followers. Having faith in self abilities and the world around him , the leader gains inspiration and also inspires others in the process.

Benefits and Risks of Vaccination Essay

Benefits and Risks of Vaccination Essay Benefits and Risks of Vaccination Essay Example Benefits and Risks of Vaccination Essay Example Vaccination refers to administering antigenic substance to stimulate the immune system of a person and initiate adaptive immunity to a given disease causing pathogen (Fiore, Bridges, Cox, 2009), and either eliminates or reduces the tendency of an infection to kill. The earliest documented vaccination attempts were made in India and China in the 17th century whereby substances obtained from wounds of small pox infected people were used as a vaccine. In the 18th century, it was realized that people who had previously suffered from a less lethal cowpox were immune to smallpox after Edward Jenner administered stuffs from a cow pox infected person to another individual and then injected smallpox causing pathogens to the latter. To his surprise, the second individual never contracted smallpox and this prompted Jenner to devise a way of creating the vaccine by extracting liquids from the pimples of vaccinated people. This led to the discovery of small pox vaccine which was the unique of it s kind (Plett, 2006). Despite controversy between medical professions and religious leaders, the vaccine gained popularity and by 18th century over 100,000 people had been vaccinated (Gross Sepkowitz, 1998). This marked the beginning of the global spread of vaccines applied under given regulations. Merits of Vaccination Smallpox used to be contagious and lethal and killed 20-26% of infected adults as well as 80% of infected children (Riedel, 2005) prior to the invention of the first vaccine in 1976 (Plett, 2006). However, vaccination has been controversial in the scientific, political, medical, religious and ethical fields, and the opposition can be traced from as early as the 19th century. Among the reasons for objection are; belief that vaccines are dysfunctional, doubt in the safety of the vaccines and the feeling that government policy on immunization is intrusion to people’s private health lives (Wolfe Sharp, 2002). When rumors were propagated about the safety of a vaccine, people were easily convinced that it was not fit for them and it took a lot of time to change their views (Bonhoeffer Heininger, 2007). With vaccinations being a current affair, politicians are likely to use it as a stepping stone to promote their political gains by spreading farfetched information about the vaccine so that people can recognize it. In many countries, rumors spread that the government is on a population control mission, and therefore, engaged in sterilizing women in disguise of vaccination. Religious leaders also played a role in frustrating vaccination campaigns arguing that diseases were Heavenly-sent to punish the sins and that it was therefore satanic to prevent them (Bazin, 2001). There has also been a fear that vaccines cause diseases like diabetes and epilepsy among others as well as transmitting viruses like hepatitis and HIV. Mainly, a controversy behind vaccines revolves around the components of vaccine and its side effects. This paper therefore seeks to discuss the merits and demerits of vaccination, so as to ascertain whether the demerits outweigh the merits. Reduced Mortality Newborn babies as well as children below 5 years are highly vulnerable to infections that are fatal. However, vaccines have eliminated a number of diseases and this has reduced the death rate of children unlike it used to be in the past when vaccines were not in place. Examples of deadly diseases that have been eliminated are; smallpox and measles while a total of 25 diseases have also been successfully managed through vaccine (Riedel, 2005). Small pox has the capability of killing 80% of the affected children hence if the disease strikes a village, more than 80% of the children are wiped out. By controlling the said 25 diseases all of which have different mortality rates, vaccines have therefore brought a remedy for deaths caused by such illnesses. Apart from children, adults were also vulnerable to disease outbreak and smallpox, for instance, could kill 26% of the affected people. A good example of the essence of vaccines is the elimination of polio in the United States of America. Polio wreaked havoc in the United States where many deaths and cases of paralysis used to be reported but polio vaccine has proved to be a panacea to that problem (Riedel, 2005). Failure to vaccinate a child therefore exposes the child to the risk of mortality. Effectiveness and Safety Vaccines are administered after a thorough research by doctors, scientists and other professionals concerned with medical services. Vaccines may have side effects like pain and tenderness of skin on the injected spot but considering the loss associated with the diseases that these vaccines prevent, the latter proves to be better because fatal cases resulting from vaccines are very rare. In case of polio, the affected may become paralyzed while tetanus may lead to amputation. Considering the effects of such illnesses, side effects of vaccines are therefore better and more bearable. The World Health Organization and independent experts have stated that vaccines are safer as compared to medicines used in treatment therapies (Zhou et al., 2003) and this is because the latter has been found to have more side effects. It has also been claimed that the harmful substances introduced to the body by a vaccine are fewer than the ones acquired in day to day life either through eating, inhaling o r skin contact. Refusing to immunize children under the fear of side effects therefore places them under a threat of more severe effects of diseases. Facilitating Mobility and Save Travel Modern times are characterized by cross-border mass travels by road, air and sea. The risk of the transmission of diseases from one country to another is high due to mass movement of people abroad. Polio, rabies, hepatitis B, measles, typhoid and cholera among others are examples of diseases that have been transmitted by travelers (Klaber 2002). Therefore, vaccination against this secures both the traveler and the residents of the destination headed by the said traveler. In cases of large international human gatherings in the world such as the Muslim Hajj among others, the host authorities require and recommend various vaccinations for participants (Ahmed, Arabi, Memish, 2006). People who are not vaccinated against certain diseases are therefore prone to travel restrictions imposed by the authorities of the intended destination for the purposes of preventing the spread of diseases according to their jurisdiction. This restriction also helps the traveler to avoid contracting contagio us diseases while on tour of the area. Children who are denied vaccination are therefore made vulnerable to diseases that are spread through travelling. Saving Time and Money Immunization is pre-empting or ameliorating a disease as opposed to treatment/medication, hence it is considered an investment. The vaccination practically costs less money and takes less time as compared to treatment that might take years and ultimately result in death even after treatment, leave alone the work time loss. In many learning institutions, it is mandatory for children to be immunized before admission and therefore an immunized child does not have to waste time during admission. Since both the household and the national economy are dependent on the health of individuals, a vaccinated community has the capability of working and spending less money on medication of preventable diseases. This promotes the alternative use of money on developmental activities hence boosting economic growth (Shearley, 1999). Immunization is associated with monetary costs in the short run, but the costs are insignificant and save more long-run costs of hospital bills as well as drug costs incur red while contagiously treating diseases when they strike. The risk of unimmunized child to contract diseases and bring losses to the family is therefore high. Protection of Others as Well as Oneself Vaccination prevents infection of an individual as well as the spread of diseases across a community. In cases where someone cannot be vaccinated due to allergic reactions to the vaccine, the fate of the person lies in the hands of the others who are capable of being vaccinated. Once an individual is vaccinated, the chances of him/her contracting and transmitting the disease are eliminated hence the vaccine protects both the individual and the community at large. In a society, the poor are to a greater extent burdened by diseases that they cannot even afford treating. Vaccination therefore, helps the poor to protect themselves from such diseases and therefore makes them less vulnerable just like the rich people. Children who are not vaccinated are therefore exposed to a risk themselves, and also pose a threat to other children. Protection against Bio Terrorism In the contemporary world, the tactics of war and terrorism has shifted from the traditional ones that involved the use of guns and bombs. The current trend has led to introduction of biological weapons such as viruses and bacteria that terrorists drop in the target area to cause an outbreak of diseases like small pox. These weapons are more destructive as compared to physical ones. Vaccination against such diseases prevents the diseases from wiping out the target community hence immunization is desirable. Vaccination therefore, is a tool for state security against the external or internal threat of bio terrorism as it neutralizes biological weapons in the form of disease causing agents hence making the population less vulnerable to terrorism. Failure to vaccinate children therefore makes them susceptible to bio terrorism. Prevention of Resistance to Antibiotics Vaccines pre-empt infections therefore reducing the prevalence of disease causing agents and the necessity of taking antibiotics. Vaccination further prevents the development of drug resistant strains of viruses and bacteria hence keeping the disease in question manageable. Creation of new vaccines against disease causing agents where there is a threat of antibiotic resistance is a long-term method of solving the problem of resistance (Lieberman, 2003). This is because persistent use of antibiotics makes pathogens develop mechanisms of resistance to those drugs in the long run. It is therefore better to use antibiotics only when necessary, at the right time and for the right purpose. If pathogens persistently develop resistance to drugs, this will be a disaster hence prevention is better than response. A child who is not immunized is therefore at a high risk of drug resistant strains of pathogens. Protecting Future Generations Vaccination of pregnant mothers helps to protect their unborn babies from potentially harmful diseases that could either cause deformities upon birth or even death. Vaccination also helps to eradicate diseases that might affect the future generation. For instance, smallpox was eradicated in 1979 (Koplow, 2003), and were it not for the vaccine, the disease could have been a menace even in the current world. Therefore, current generation does not have to be vaccinated against small pox because the disease has been eliminated by vaccines. It has been noticed that American women who were immunized against German measles at a young age had less chances of spreading the virus to their infants and the unborn babies, hence reducing the percentage of birth deformities like heart problems, mental disabilities and hearing and vision loss among others. Failure to immunize a child is therefore a disregard to the health of future generations. Demerits of Vaccination Infringement of Constitutionally Protected Religious Rights Constitutions of most countries uphold religious freedom of their respective citizens. Some religions have beliefs that tend to oppose medical services arguing that diseases are acts of God and therefore followers of the said religions tend to oppose vaccination because of their opinion that it is evil. However, when the governments come up with vaccination policies, they do not exempt followers of such religions from compulsory vaccination. This is therefore a violation of rights of such people on matters of health yet those rights are guaranteed by the Constitution (Bazin, 2001). Rejection to immunize children therefore protects their religious rights. Government Intervention in Personal Medical Choices Human rights activists argue that people have sovereignty over their own bodies by virtue of being free citizens and therefore the government should not forcefully vaccinate people (Wolfe Sharp, 2002). Parents are assumed to play a role of deciding what medical service is good for their children and therefore the government should not only consult them before planning vaccination campaigns, but also allow them to decide on whether the vaccine is necessary or not. However, there are tough situations that call for tough measures and therefore use of force is warranted if a country is to save its population from a deadly disease. Parents of unimmunized children therefore have full control over decisions concerning their lives. Harmful Consequences of Vaccines There is scientific evidence of vaccines causing severe allergic reactions (anaphylaxis) (Bonhoeffer Heininger, 2007). Vaccines administered through injections are associated with redness of the skin, warmth and swelling. Chicken pox vaccine in particular is said to cause harmful effects like pneumonia and meningitis. Vaccine viruses are also associated with eye infection or even loss of eye sight as a result of its reaching the eyes. Unimmunized children are therefore protected from harmful consequences of vaccines. Vaccines have benefits that outweigh the risks because they have led to eradication of diseases like small pox that used to be deadly as compared to the allergic reactions that have been found on vaccines. Out of the number of vaccinated children, only a small fraction have been negatively affected by immunization as compared to those who have not been harmed and this therefore gives credit to vaccines. Vaccination is a medical procedure just like any other and therefore it has its own risks as well. The few cases of injuries and undesirable side effects are not as disastrous as the consequences of diseases that these vaccines pre-empt hence the risk is bearable compared to the loss of lives as a result of illnesses. Vaccination has also played a role of mitigation against bio terrorism whereby disease causing pathogens are used as a weapon. The role of vaccine has therefore extended to encompass security purposes and this has added a lot of weight to its significance. In the modern world that is dynamic, travelling is part and parcel of day to day life hence it is unavoidable. Vaccines have facilitated safe cross-border travels hence reducing the rates of transmission of diseases that are rapidly spread through travelling. All this is enough to prove that vaccines are important hence vaccine campaigns should be intensified to make the world safer and compromise should be avoided as long as safety of immunization is guaranteed. Immunization Policy Immunization is considered the 20th century public health achievement approach that reduced child mortality rate in a cost-effective manner (Conis, 2014). In the United States and around the world, immunization has offered protection not only to children, but to the larger population. Individuals with immune system disorders have also benefited hugely from the immunization programs. The state of public health has played a significant role, coming up with sophisticated immunization policies. Over the past few decades, the policy has had an effect on the life of Americans, increasing life expectancy to almost 30 years (Conis, 2014). The improvement occurred due to the increased usage of vaccines and other antimicrobial agents. Vaccination is one of the significant approaches of care delivery that has saved society through routine immunization of children in the country. Even though health activists have over the years highlighted that the vaccination policy has diverse effects on a chi lds life, the essay elucidates its success and importance to Americans. Significance of Vaccination Conis (2014) heralds immunization policy as one of the imperative methods the government has ever adopted to address premature deaths among children due to diseases such as typhoid and measles. The policy has proved to be of great magnitude since vaccination emerged as a very safe and effective way of preventing severe diseases that occur due to infectious organisms and viruses by increasing the amount of antibodies. Vaccination is administered through drops in the mouth or injecting an individual with a modified disease causative agent. As such, the person develops immunity to that disease since his or her antibodies would be strengthened. It is significant to assert that when all individuals in a given community are vaccinated, the spread of a disease can be curbed, and infection cannot be transmitted from one individual to another. Thus, the exact target of the immunization policy is to assure that every member of the community is immunized against deadly disease. Immunization has been successful in relation to eradication of diseases such as polio and smallpox, which have been significantly wiped off the face of the country. However, to ensure the defeat of diseases through vaccination during their inception, it is considerable to have an immunization policy in place that would oversee the increased percentage of Americans are immunized against various medical conditions. The goal of the vaccination policy is to get rid of diseases and discontinue its existence on earth. The policy has particularly emphasized on the common diseases, such as malaria, polio, measles, mumps, and smallpox, directing its efforts towards their eradication (Stratton, Wilson, McCormick, Institute of Medicine (U.S.), Institute of Medicine (U.S.), 2002). Enforcing the vaccination policies, the Center for Disease Control makes certain that it produces immunity, especially to preventable diseases. However, the vaccination policy does not only focus on an individual, but also on community as a whole, which has a herd immunity. The significant notion behind herd immunity is to make it hard for pathogens to spread to the larger part of the population. The move will allow to protect individuals that cannot access personal vaccination due to aspects such as allergies, age, and health reasons. Success of Immunization Immunization is one of the success stories and major achievements by the Department of Health in the 20th century. The increasing use of the vaccine in the country has led to the elimination of two devastating childhood diseases, which are polio and smallpox. In addition, over the past few decades, vaccination has helped reduce the spread of other critical diseases such as diphtheria, Measles, whooping cough, tetanus, and Haemophilus influenzae type b disease. Immunization policy has been successful through different immunization programs introduced to the mainstream population. In the United States, there are four vaccines introduced during the late 90s that have successfully offered protection to the population (Stratton et al., 2002). The four vaccines programs highlighted in the U.S. immunization policy, which have played a leading role in minimizing the spread rate of certain diseases in the country, are as follows. First, the Hepatitis B vaccines offer protection against the causative agent of liver cancer and chronic liver disease. The vaccine has been effective, especially in minimizing the cases of cancer. On the other hand, varicella vaccine offers protection against complications that are associated with chicken pox, which includes the severe group A streptococcal disease. Moreover, the conjugated 7-serotype pneumococcal vaccine offers protection to children from infections such as bacteremia, pneumonia, and meningitis. The U.S. immunization policy has been successful in protecting individuals from diverse illnesses as a result of the spread of viruses. For the past few decades, programs aimed at adults, adolescents and children have decreased the spread of organisms that are responsible for various deadly diseases. The flexibility of the policy allows the Ministry of Health to add additional vaccines in each program in response to the emergence of a disease that might result in the death of children. For instance, in the past decade, the childhood immunization program added influenza virus infection vaccines and respiratory syncytial virus vaccines, which had resulted in the hospitalization of children. Parents and health pundits have argued that the vaccination programs have adverse effects on the health of children. However, serious adverse effects have yet to be reported. Furthermore, it is clear that discontinuation of these vaccines will lead to increased death rates due to deadly diseases. According to Wang, Clymer, Davis-Hayes, and Buttenheim (2014), discontinuation of measles vaccine in the country would lead to the occurrence of more than three million cases of measles, as well as close to 1800 deaths annually (Wang et al., 2014). As a result, the policy on this issue has been clear and has offered alternative approaches in case of side effects due to vaccination [see vaccine safety section]. The United States immunization policy is flexible, allowing each state to implement a variety of exemptions and administrative rules (Wang et al., 2014). Exemptions throughout the country vary from one state to another due to certain medical reasons. For instance, almost all states make exemptions due to religious beliefs of a certain faction except West Virginia and Mississippi. In addition, particular states consider philosophical reasons as an exemption. State Programs Many states depend on the federal government to access vaccines and vaccination programs. Nevertheless, the federal programs are not satisfactory; as a result, diverse states have embarked on purchasing vaccines for their population. Universal Purchase By the year 2014, different states demonstrated universal purchase policies whereby they had the initiative to purchase vaccines for children, including the insured ones. These states included New Hampshire, New Mexico, Indiana, Maine, Vermont, Rhode Island, and Washington. In addition, there were two other states, namely North Dakota and Florida, which have had general purchase policies covering public providers. It is significant to acknowledge that despite having a common immunization policy, each state have tailored it to their capabilities since the national government cannot meet the demands of all states at once. However, the policies tailored to each state should conform to the national policy. Insurance Requirements The Affordable Care Act included in the policy clearly requires insurance policies and new health plans to offer coverage for certain preventive services without cost sharing. Preventive services, according to the policies, include immunizations that are recommended by the National Advisory Committee (Kim, Bridges, Harriman, 2015). The committee consists of members that are appointed by the United States Secretary of Health and Human Services who recommends immunization schedules for children, adolescents, and adults. The policy is clear and is based on regulations emphasized by the secretary that insurance policies should offer preventive services to any vaccination program. However, flexibility of the federal policy allows states to decide which childhood immunization to cover, either that recommended by the Advisory Committee or the one suggested by American Academy of Pediatrics (Kim et al., 2015). Moreover, there are other states that have sought to embrace an immunization mand ate into their ‘well-child’ coverage. On the other hand, other states in the country adhere to the federal immunization policy without considering any amendments. Vaccine Safety Both the state and policy makers, as well as vaccine manufacturers, government agencies, the medical community, and guardians share a common vision, which is to keep children healthy and safe. As a result, vaccine manufacturers and the relevant government agencies have engineered vaccines for adults and children in the safest way possible (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2015). However, vaccines are not hundred percent safe as there are some side effects that they can cause to an individual. As vaccination becomes efficient, many parents tend to forget the symptoms of the disease and are more concerned about the side effects. Due to ignorance, some of the parents may begin to think that the risk of having a reaction due to vaccination is greater compared to contracting an incurable disease. This immunization policy is clear since its main purpose is to offer programs that address the situation at both the state and federal level. Federal Safety Programs Highlighted in the Policy The policy acknowledges the need to have a safety program to address the rising concerns of vaccine side effects. According to the policy, when a child or an adult experiences adverse reactions, it can be reported to the Vaccine Averse Event Reporting System (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2015). The system is coordinated by the Centre for Disease Control and Food and Drugs Administration, serving as a warning method to address problems that might be related to immunizations. The Center for Disease Control plays a significant role in the immunization policy to make sure that every American is safe and free from any adverse effect related to vaccinations. In addition, the National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program run by the federal government allows members of the public to file a claim because of a side effect caused by a vaccine. The program assists families that suffer from side effects of vaccines to access financial assistance, and decreases lawsuits against vaccin e manufacturers (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2015). Thimerosal and Mercury Stratton et al. (2002) defined thimerosal as a type of preservative, which contains a certain form of mercury. The preservative was present in small amounts in a number of vaccines and offered protection against bacterial contamination. However, thimerosal was connected with health problems, such as autism. The Centre for Disease Control asserted that small amounts of the preservative had minor effects, such as redness and swelling, on the infected site. As a result, the new vaccination policy has put this into consideration. In July 1999, the federal government, being the policy maker, directed vaccine manufacturers to eliminate the preservative in any vaccination product that is available in the market. Since then, thimerosal is not a preservative, especially in childhood vaccinations. In addition, several states, including Delaware, Illinois, Washington, Missouri, and Iowa, have banned or limited the use of the preservative in childhood immunization (National Conference of State L egislatures, 2015). Adult Immunization Adult immunization differs from children immunization in several ways. For instance, when compared to that of children, there are unique requirements, and not all facilities have the infrastructure that supports adults’ vaccination. There is no federal program that helps adults that might not have access to medical care, especially adults aged 65 and above. The policy has put in place Adult Immunization Schedule. The schedule includes vaccination for conditions such as tetanus, varicella, and Hepatitis B. The program covers certain adults that are at risk of getting the above diseases in certain populations. In addition, the policy focuses majorly on pneumococcal and influenza vaccinations for older adults (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2015). If immunization policy highlighted that vaccination was compulsory, different diseases would have been contained during their early stages. Religious belief and fear have emerged as the main concerns, sometimes occurring as impediments towards mandatory immunization. Nevertheless, the immunization policy is considerate since it acknowledges the rights of minority groups that do not buy the concept of vaccination in every state. Vaccines are not hundred percent safe because they may have some side effects, but even some drugs that are used by these factions also have side effects. The right attitude towards vaccination will help parents to have control over the life of their children, and contribute towards the eradication of deadly diseases. Policy makers will then have ample time to propose a comprehensive immunization policy that will contribute towards curbing the spread of deadly diseases.

How Does Poverty Affect Worldwide Development Essay Essays

How Does Poverty Affect Worldwide Development Essay Essays How Does Poverty Affect Worldwide Development Essay Essay How Does Poverty Affect Worldwide Development Essay Essay How does poverty impact worldwide development and the usage of the Millennium Development Goals? The Millennium Development Goals ( MDG’s ) are a group of ends created by the U. N. set to be achieved globally by 2015. There are eight different ends runing from Gender Equality to Environmental Sustainability. The first end is ‘To eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger’ and more specifically. Halve. between 1990 and 2015. the proportion of people whose income is less than $ 1 a twenty-four hours. By 2005. the planetary poorness rate declined from 46 % in 1990 to 27 % . Besides. the figure of people in developing parts populating on less than $ 1. 25 ( US ) a twenty-four hours declined from 1. 8 billion in 1990 to 1. 4 billion in 2005. This was really encouraging to the U. N. but so. the fiscal crisis hit. The economic crises sparked big diminutions in exports and slowed trade worldwide. Thankfully. the overall poorness rate is still expected to fall to 15 per cent by 2015. This translates into around 920 million people populating under the poorness line which is half the figure in 1990. –Singapore Singapore is most surely a developed state as it has a flourishing economic system and has completed every MDG. When the Millennium Development Goals were created in 2000. Singapore was already a really developed state and one of the biggest powers in Asia. One of Singapore’s chief trades is touristry. and in 2010. Singapore welcomed 11. 6 million visitants. which generated 18. 8 billion dollars. In the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report released by the World Economic Forum. Singapore emerged top in the Asia-Pacific part. and was ranked tenth out of 139 universe economic systems for fight of the touristry sector. This merely goes to demo that Singapore is a cardinal participant in the universe touristry sector and is up the top with Switzerland. Germany. France and Canada. There is really small informations about poorness in Singapore as it can merely be found in a little figure of instances instead than 10s of 1000s of people. That being said. Singapore does hold many hapless and stateless people. Sadly. they are normally the aged seeking to look after themselves by busking or selling points off the streets. The Singapore authorities has implemented different action programs to counter this job and has public assistance plans that can assist people in despairing demand. Presently nevertheless. there are merely 3000 households qualify. The mean household income was at S $ 7. 214 in 2010. which is more than plenty for a household to afford basic necessities. However this information may non be accurate at stand foring the state of affairs. The figure may hold been lifted significantly by the affluent locals and exiles populating here. What this does is cover the fact that there may be households populating on much less that stated. –Cambodia Cambodia is recognised as a underdeveloped state and needs aid in finishing MDG figure 1. Cambodia has a deficiency of natural resources and a crude industrial base doing agribusiness to be a cardinal portion in its economic system. Rice provides the basic diet and was Cambodia’s major export before 1970. Cambodia’s current GDP is $ 30. 13 Billion U. S and the mean income is $ 2000 U. S. This statement does non make the state of affairs in Cambodia any justness. The people of Cambodia ( normally in rural countries ) suffer from 31 % of the population being under the poorness line. This means that they live on less than $ 1. 25 U. S a twenty-four hours. From 2003. when the Government of Cambodia commenced the MDG’s. Cambodia has made good advancement in some ends and really limited in others. While there has been a important betterment in poorness rates in urban countries. the rates are still really high in rural countries. Implementing MDG figure 1 would greatly better the lives of the Cambodians. In 1990. it is estimated that 29 % of Cambodia was below the ‘Dollar a Day’ rate before falling to 19 % in 2004. Poverty has stalled the development of Cambodia as the precedence of the authorities is focused on the people in poorness. To finish the MDG’s particularly end figure 1. would be really good for the Cambodians as the authorities could concentrate on developing the different trades and work on making a safer. sustainable and productive hereafter. Comparison Singapore and Cambodia are both located in South East Asia. but there are some major differences between them. For illustration. Singapore has completed all of the 8 development ends. while Cambodia has merely completed merely one to day of the month. Singapore’s G. D. P is $ 292. 4 ( US ) Billion compared to Cambodia’s $ 30. 13 Billion ( US ) . Singapore is ranked 41st for G. D. P in the universe compared to Cambodia at 108th. In the Human Development Index. Singapore is ranked twenty-seventh compared to Cambodia’s 124th. The Human Development Index ( HDI ) is a comparative step of life anticipation. literacy. instruction and criterions of life for states worldwide. There are many different methods of comparing the two states and in about all of them. Singapore and the other developed states will be higher ranked. That is why we must globally concentrate on assisting the development states and the Millennium Development Goals are a great system for placing and work outing the issues that are faced. How we can assist Poverty and Hunger can do big jobs in development and they need to near globally. This does non intend though. that the lone people that can assist are authoritiess. charities and big corporations. No. persons are able to assist in many ways. From simple things like donating money to a charity or raising consciousness to forming a full blown fund-raising event. Every idea and contribution counts. Due to technological progresss and increased popularity of societal webs in recent old ages. a new window of chance for consciousness and contribution has been created. Facebook is an illustration. Presently. the web site can tout the figure of ranks is over 1 billion users. This is a monolithic mark audience and provides easy methods of consciousness. Simple thoughts such as making a group or a page supplying information and consciousness on a chosen M. D. G or charity. so ask foring your friends who so pass it on. Another interesting web site is http: //www. freerice. com/ . This website gives the user inquiries on a assortment of subjects and provinces that they will donate 10 grains of rice to the World Food Program whenever you answer the inquiry right. This is possible through the usage of patrons on the page. This is a great thought and it allows users to hold a sense of physically